How Athenian Democracy Came to Be in 7 Stages

The Athenian institution of democracy emerged in several  stages. This occurred in response to political, social, and economic conditions. As was true elsewhere in the Greek world, the individual city-state (polis) of Athens had once been ruled by kings,  but that had given way to an oligarchic government by archons elected from the aristocratic (Eupatrid) families. With this overview, learn more about the gradual development of Athenian democracy. This breakdown  follows sociologist Eli Sagans model of seven stages, but others argue that there are as many as 12 stages of Athenian democracy. Solon (c. 600 - 561) Debt bondage and loss of holdings to creditors led to political unrest. The rich non-aristocrats wanted power. Solon was elected archon in 594 to reform the laws. Solon lived in the Archaic Age of Greece, which preceded the Classical period. Tyranny of the Pisistratids (561-510)(Peisistratus and sons) Benevolent despots took control after the compromise of Solon failed. Moderate Democracy (510 - c. 462)Cleisthenes The factional struggle between Isagoras and Cleisthenes following the end of the tyranny. Cleisthenes allied himself with the people by promising them citizenship. Cleisthenes reformed social organization and put an end to the aristocratic rule. Radical Democracy (c. 462-431)Pericles Pericles mentor, Ephialtes, put an end to the Areopagus as a political force. In 443 Pericles was elected general and re-elected every year until his death in 429. He introduced pay for public service (jury duty). Democracy meant freedom at home and domination abroad. Pericles lived during the Classical period. Oligarchy (431-403) War with Sparta led to the total defeat of Athens. In 411 and 404 two oligarchic counter-revolutions tried to destroy democracy. Radical Democracy (403-322)​ This stage marked a stable time with Athenian orators Lysias, Demosthenes, and  Aeschines debating what was best for the polis. Macedonian and Roman Domination (322-102) Democratic ideals continued despite domination by outside powers. An Alternative Opinion While Eli Sagan believes Athenian democracy can be divided into seven chapters, classicist and political scientist Josiah Ober has a different view. He sees 12 stages in the development of Athenian democracy, including the initial Eupatrid oligarchy and the final fall of democracy to the imperial powers. For more details about how Ober came to this conclusion, review his argument in detail in  Democracy and Knowledge. Below are Obers divisions about the development of Athenian democracy. Note where they overlap with Sagan and where they differ.   Eupatrid Oligarchy (700-595)Solon and tyranny (594-509)Foundation of democracy (508-491)Persian Wars (490-479)Delian League and postwar re-building (478-462)High (Athenian) empire and struggle for Greek hegemony (461-430)Peloponnesian War I (429-416)Peloponnesian War II (415-404)After the Peloponnesian War (403-379)Naval confederation, social war, the financial crisis (378-355)Athens confronts Macedonia, economic prosperity (354-322)Macedonian/Roman domination (321-146) Source:Eli Sagans

National Inventors Month

May is National Inventors Month. A month long event celebrating invention and creativity. National Inventors Month began was started in 1998 by the United Inventors Association of the USA (UIA-USA), the Academy of Applied Science, and Inventors Digest magazine. Why have National Inventors Month as a month dedicated to inventors? The answer is to help promote the positive image of inventors and the real contributions they give to this world. We want to recognize those talented, brave individuals who dare to be blatantly creative, and therefore different, and whose accomplishments affect every facet of our lives, says Joanne Hayes-Rines, editor of Inventors Digest and a sponsor of National Inventors Month. National Inventors Month Sponsors Inventors DigestUnited Inventors Association of the USAAcademy of Applied Science

Analysis Of The Book Night - 1279 Words

Night Book review I went Into Elie Wiesel s Night having read the book in various stages in my life. It seems to follow me through my schooling years. In junior high I read it in standard English class, just like any other book I would have read that year. In high school I read it for a project I was creating on World War II, looking at it from a more historical approach. Being a firsthand account of concentration camps made it a reliable source of historical information. But during previous times when I was reading, I never thought to take a look at it from a theological point of view. Doing so this time really opened my eyes to things and themes I hadn t noticed during previous readings. On the surface, Night is a standard Holocaust memoir, I know I had that impression the previous times I have read it, but what makes it stand out more than other more historical telling of the Holocaust is Elie Wiesel s discussion about his loss of faith, especially when looking at it from a theological point of view. So, while the book can be summarized as the story of a teenager who survives several concentration camps during the Holocaust, it is also about how someone can completely lose his faith. In the beginning Elie is a young man who is so religious that he voluntarily studies Judaism in his spare time, but as he witnesses horrific incidents and loses every member of his family, he abandons his belief in a loving, merciful God and with that comes out a changed person.Show MoreRelatedAnalysis Of The Book The Night 964 Words   |  4 Pagesconstruction happened. Wanda had no choice but sat on the dusty floor while the thick chemistry book set under her butt as she used it as her cushion. Not more than ten minutes later, a sound of footsteps growing near her, triggered Wanda to straight up her body and peeked behind the wall to find out whose footstep was that. It was Chris. He was balancing a pile of books in his hand. Most of the books are from the library, and Wanda guessed that he was searching for more information about whatRead MoreAnalysis Of The Book The Night 1703 Words   |  7 PagesThe night is brisk and even with the thick suede jacket pulled over the man’s shoulders he is still freezing. He should mind the frozen temperatures, but he doesn’t because he has just won a vast amount of money off a bet. Money that he can spend on luxuries that he doesn’t need but believes he deserves. He smiles to himself, walking along the cold roads. Occasionally passersby will bump into him and cautious to pickpockets, he pats the pocket that holds the thick envelope of money. Maybe he’ll stopRead MoreAnalysis Of The Book The Night 1 207 Words   |  5 PagesAlan strode out the door just as skittish as he was when he walked in. He went over his plan in his head a countless amount of times. He was meeting Diana for dinner that night. He was going to put the potion into her wine. Diana wasn’t aware that Alan had such a tremendous admiration for her. He was strolling along, almost to the restaurant when a bluebird swooped down and snatched the love potion from Alan’s grip. â€Å"Ah-ah-oh you come back here bird! That’s mine!† shrieked Alan. He dashedRead MoreAnalysis Of The Book The Night 850 Words   |  4 Pagesthinks it is for the name Rachel while everyone else believes it the is German word for revenge. By the science of deduction he learns that the woman and was poison and was traveling because parts of her was wet when it did not rain in London the night before. He then notices her suitcase is missing and this was the murders mistake. Holmes leaves quickly and leaves Watson alone at the crime scene. He heads to the main road to get a taxi. As he walks down the road he notices the phones keep ringingRead MoreAnalysis Of The Book The Night Essay764 Words   |  4 Pagesif you really want to, talk to Syd†¦the Sofria that lives here. She is very good with plants, but you may end up with her a lot of time with her since all of her books are in those strange marks. I’ll be honest. I don’t think there is mean ing in those marks. I think she is really smart, and all the information is in her head. The books are just for show.† â€Å"I’ll ask.† They walked the garden, Tizbeth studying the different plants, thinking of questions. Lord Donovan was insulted when he told herRead MoreAnalysis Of The Book The Night 1151 Words   |  5 Pageswhile on the road, Seth screws up his courage enough to profess his love for Lyla. She freaks out. Unable to deal with Seth, Lyla leaves him a note, saying that she does not see Seth in the same light that he does her and flees in the middle of the night. Unable to return home and depressed that he scared off Lyla, he meets a mage named Jay-with-a-J tangled in enormous brambles. He rescues him with a fire spell and learns of the alternative group of naturalists called druids. Able to manipulate lifeRead MoreAnalysis Of The Book The Night 852 Words   |  4 PagesWith a basket on his back and an arm filled with a rifle, Eustace started out with his husky, Hunter, to check his traps. The black spotted, white fluff pounced forward with determination, well acquainted with the trap-line, howl ing and barking as he went ahead of Eustace along the Yaak River. Mornings like this along the trickling river with nobody and nothing, but greenery and his furry, elusive neighbors in sight in their natural orchestral of bustling calls made Eustaces transition from anRead MoreAnalysis Of The Book The Of The Night 1062 Words   |  5 Pagesreservations. The second fundamental theme of the novel is associated with the aspect of internal beauty and how people should not incoherently assess others based on what they see on the outside. This is magnificently recapitulated by Sachi on the night in which part of Yamaguchi goes ablaze when she states, â€Å"Beauty exists where you least expect to find it.† (148). Apparently, Sachi claims that she used to be very selfish and exalt external beauty by placing it above all else in significance; consequentlyRead MoreAnalysis Of The Book The Night 1111 Words   |  5 PagesKen Yelled but I had shot way before he said it. The bullet I shot first went through his arm the second one went in his leg bu t finally I hit him right through the skull â€Å"Bull’s-eye.† Day 3 We left the store with a really good amount of food that night but we can’t rely on the same store for the rest of the time we live here. We need to leave San Francisco for good find a non-infected city. â€Å"It’ll be hard.† Ken had said â€Å"There aren’t any cities uninfected for miles and we don’t have enough food orRead MoreAnalysis Of The Book The Night Essay792 Words   |  4 PagesPreitor, bedraggled and exhausted, heaved the small bag he had with him onto his back and shuffled inside to the main entry terminal of Omega’s small but busy spaceport. The caked on grime of every surface made him crumple his nose in disgust. The smell†¦ what the hell was that smell? Aside from his obvious distaste for what would, he hoped, be a temporary stay, his mind was still filled with thoughts that kept him from slumber on his journey here. The volus, the dead asari, Therax and Thul and

Climate Change and Evolution Essay - 1060 Words

Climate Change and Evolution The ecological consequences of global climate change are expected to be drastic although not much is known as to how individual species will react to these changes. Irrespective of the causes of climate change, whether anthropogenic or natural, it is imperative that we address these concerns, as they will have widespread impacts on the human species, both directly and indirectly through forcings on other species. The climate is not expected to shift evenly and the ways in which certain species adapt or migrate due to these changes could be erratic and unpredictable. The rate at which the earth’s climate is currently changing is unprecedented and has not been seen in the past 450,000 years. Although many†¦show more content†¦The species’ main food source, ringed seals, which live on the ice of Hudson Bay are becoming increasingly inaccessible due to earlier ice melts. Were wrong if we think that climate change is something that will happen far off in the future. Polar bears are starving now and we need to act now to stop climate change, said Kevin Jardine, Greenpeace climate impacts specialist. A recent study by Canadian polar bear researchers showed that the species have less time to hunt during the season and are forced to return to land undernourished. The study reports a decline in weight of both male and female bears as well as a noticeable decline in offspring. As the Hudson Bay bears fast for six to eight months out of the year, sustaining themselves on nourishment from the hunting season, they are increasingly unable to survive the rest of the year due to limited food resources. Polar bears are not the only species currently under stress form a warming climate however. Masses of orange-and-black Monarch butterflies that travel on a 3,000-mile annual migration from the United States and Canada covered an area of 42 acres two years ago. Now, however, the butterflies that winter in the area cover a mere 13.5 acres. Monarch butterflies are very sensitive to climate change; the smallest temperature change can have drastic impacts on their populations. Monarchs have developed various adaptations in order to avoid being caught and eaten by predators.Show MoreRelatedEvolutionary Theory : Climate Change On Evolution899 Words   |  4 PagesEvolutionary Theory: Climate Change on Evolution Evolution is the process of change that occurs in the traits of a population of a species over many years. At the molecular level, dissimilarities of an individual’s genes, known as the genotype, result in the change of their physical characteristics, or phenotype. There are three main driving forces that trigger evolution in a population. Those three include: natural selection, change in the gene pool through mating, and genetic variation betweenRead MoreEvolution Of Humans : Human Biology And Early Culture Essay1336 Words   |  6 PagesEvolution of Humans No one can be absolutely sure when the first humans actually walked the Earth, only approximations can be made. Approximately 200,000 years ago species are developed in Africa. Most human species and most human biology and early culture in its broadest sense originated in Africa. Archaeologist and anthropologist may have been able to pinpoint exactly where the early human species lived and approximately how long ago they lived but are their assumptions correct? A huge part ofRead MoreAnalyzing Changes in Education1258 Words   |  6 PagesDeborah Hastings SEC 501 February 24, 2016 Mr. M Analyzing Changes in Education We’ve come a long way, baby! Over the past 100 years of public education in the great state of Alabama, changes in education have been literally fought for by blood, sweat and tears. However, with the desegregation issues from 1964 closed for the past 50 years, state legislatures still find plenty of arguments concerning public education reforms. Most of these arguments, though, are essentially concerns about federalRead MoreGlobal Mean Temperatures Are Rising Rapidly Due To The1400 Words   |  6 Pagesfitness. Changes in selection pressure will inevitably decrease the size and range of most populations, while increasing a select few. Evolutionary models can be a good predictor of an organism’s fitness under dynamic conditions. Multiple models are available, but which model is best suited for a given species, trait, or environmental condition is debatable. While many models have provided insight into evolutionary events of the past, they may prove to be inadequate in predicting changes under theRead MoreClimate Change : The Fossil Record844 Words   |  4 PagesIntroduction Anthropogenic influences are causing dramatic changes to environmental conditions worldwide. Global mean temperatures are predicted to increase between 0.3 °C to 4.8 °C by the end of the century (IPCC 2014). Precipitation averages are decreasing, polar icecaps are melting, carbon dioxide levels are rising, and oceans are acidifying. Populations must adapt to the new conditions or face extinction. Changes in environmental conditions have occurred throughout earth’s long history, thoughRead MoreCultural Complexity And Its Impact On Modern Humans959 Words   |  4 Pagessizes and a more stratified distribution of resources possible, these central aspects of complicated cultures are not able to explain the forces behind human encephalization. Rather, complex ecological features, such as seasonality and large-scale climate change, exerted adaptive pressure toward the development of cognitive ability on predecessors to modern humans. Only after cognitive ability developed to a point so as to allow the creation of complicated cultures could social pressures significantlyRead MoreClimate Change And Behaviourally Modern Humans Essay857 Words   |  4 PagesClimate Change and Behaviourally Modern Humans 1.0 Introduction The role of climate change in the development of many key evolutionary traits that allowed for the rise of the genus Homo has been the topic of much interdisciplinary debate in the fields of archaeology and the geological sciences. Correlations of evolutionary events shown in the archaeological record and global climate trends have formed the foundation of several climate driven evolutionary models (reviewed in Behrensmeyer 2006). DespiteRead MoreThe Political Dialog Of Conservation And Power Over The Earth1589 Words   |  7 Pagesa religious one by utilizing Biblical scripture. Since the majority of Republicans are also Christian, targeting the Church will appeal to large amounts of people. This requires connecting popular scripture in Christianity with the issue of climate change. Creation care is the idea that God calls Christians to care for the Earth. Even though all Christians acknowledge that God created the Earth, not everyone agrees about the responsibilities Christians have for this creation. In Genesis 1:28Read MorePersuasive Essay On Rights Of Nature1607 Words   |  7 Pagesrights of nature. Impacts of climate change are increasingly felt by Earth’s inhabitants including us, humans. The current warming, which is only one degree Celsius, has affected different ecological processes such as â€Å"species’ genetics, seasonal response, overall distribution, and even morphology† (Hance). Species are suddenly disappearing. A study conducted by â€Å"PLOS Biology found that more than 450 plants and animals have undergone local extinctions due to climate change† (Hance). Worst is resourcesRead MoreHuman Evolution Is A Controversial Topic1338 Words   |  6 Pages Introduction Human evolution is a very controversial topic all around the world- mostly due to religion. Despite the conflict between religion and the science of human evolution, recently, there has been a statement made by Pope Francis saying that it is possible for both God and evolution (along with the Big Bang) to exist. The Pope implies He [God] created human beings and let them develop according to the internal laws that he gave to each one so they would reach their fulfillment (McKenna

The Role Of Computers In Chemistry Essay free essay sample

, Research Paper The Role of Computers in Chemistry Over the last few decennaries, the engineering of computing machines has improved in springs and bounds. Computers have become faster and easier to utilize, taking msecs to make the computations which one time had to be done by manus. There are several countries of chemical science where computing machines have played a important function, a few of them I will discourse. In man-made chemical science it is really of import to cognize what compounds you have created. Chemists rely on spectroscopic techniques to analyze compounds they have made. Nuclear magnetic resonance, mass, infra ruddy and extremist violet spectroscopy all depend on computing machines to command the sensitive equipment and obtain and enter elaborate measurings. These analytical techniques have allowed chemists to place the exact construction of compounds, which was antecedently guesswork based on observations from chemical belongingss. Molecular multitudes are known to the mcg, which would be impossible without the assistance of the computing machine. We will write a custom essay sample on The Role Of Computers In Chemistry Essay or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page It is obvious that computing machines are of import in taking measurings but they can besides be used to foretell measurings. There is some really powerful package available for foretelling physical belongingss of compounds. Bond lengths, runing points, vibrational frequences and belongingss such as solubility can be predicted utilizing dedicated package based on theories known. Software like this can assist you to? design? a molecule to the specific demands of the chemist. Without the package, it would take hours of computations to foretell the belongingss. Another of import country of chemical science is analyzing informations obtained from experiments, to look for forms to turn out theories. This can be done by manus, but involves a batch of computations, which is clip devouring and apt to errors. Analysing information is frequently best done utilizing a spreadsheet. Spreadsheets can rapidly work out computations and secret plan graphs demoing a pictural representation of the informations more easy than any human could. Spreadsheets are normally really good at ciphering the equation of a best-fit line of a graph, which is frequently of import in chemical science. Having used computing machines to obtain accurate informations, it seems reasonable to hive away it where it can easy be retrieved for mention. It could be stored on paper, filed off in alphabetical order. This is all right until the chemist wants to happen informations on a group of compounds such as the intoxicants, or those with a runing point of over 100oC. This is where storage of the informations electronically, utilizing a database, becomes really utile. This makes the searching of informations really easy for different standards such as temperatures, solubility or mass. For illustration if a mass spectrum produced a parent ion mass of 175, so the database could be searched for all those with the matching mass to try to happen a lucifer. If you couldn? t find the right informations in your database, could you look at person else? s? This leads me on to communications and the sharing of informations. Networks are really utile in big companies. They allow communicating between different computing machines, and more significantly, the exchange of informations. This means a company could hold a cardinal database with all the records. This has several advantages. First, the consistence of informations. There aren? t 50 transcripts of the same database spread around the company, which can be altered and updated independently of each other taking to incompatibilities. Accessing the same database means everyone gets the same information. Besides, because it is on a web waiter, it can be accessed from any computing machine connected to the web. Network size can run from a few computing machines in a room connected to a waiter, to a company with several sites worldwide. The most extended web is the World Wide Web, or Internet. This has besides provided a valuable communicating nexus, efficaciously linking tonss of webs together. The Internet has allowed the transportation thoughts, with online conferences being held across the universe without anyone of all time holding to go forth their computing machine screens. Large companies normally have their ain web page. It provides information about the company and contacts but besides doubles up as a signifier of advertisement. In the last decennary the storage capablenesss of media has greatly increased. Gone are the yearss of 5.25? discs, now we are into CD-ROM? S and DVD? s which can keep huge sums of informations. Multimedia presentations have given us a new manner of larning. They include a broad scope of media types ( hence multimedia ) such as picture, artworks, sound and text, besides leting the user to interact with the plan and hopefully supply a better manner of acquisition. As the velocity of computing machines has increased, the rate of advancement in research has increased excessively, demoing how of import the usage of computing machines in chemical science is. Without them we would non hold such a good apprehension of chemical science. 34c

Dance

Dance-Christianity Essay With the rise of Christianity throughout the first millennium, dramatic rituals developed for use during prayer. The Latin mass is the best-known of these rites. Originally dance movements were part of these pieces as well as music and a dramatic dialogue. By the Middle Ages these works moved from inside the churches to the out- of-doors. On church, squares cathedral porches, and marketplaces, miracle plays, and morality plays that taught the churchs lessons were enacted in a theatrical way. Rather than being part of the ritual, however, these pieces had become a form of entertainment. Dance was also observed in two other sorts of activity. In dramatic ritual games with dance movement the passing of the seasons was celebrated, even as it had been by primitive tribes; and in the works of troubadours and other wandering minstrels, dance and song were used to express the full range of human emotions. Another important rite of the Middle Ages was known as the dance of death. A ritual procession performed throughout Europe from the 14th to the 16th century, it was a sort of danced parade that was led by a figure representing death. It was performed perhaps with the most intensity in the years of the Black Death, a bubonic plague that swept across Europe beginning in 1373. At once grotesque and graceful, the piece expressed the anguish of a diseased civilization. The dance of death reflected the rituals performed by primitive peoples, who had also danced to acknowledge the passing of the seasons of the year and of a human life on Earth. Other dances in the Middle Ages did the same. During the annual May games, for example, dances were performed that celebrated the greening of the countryside and the fertility of the land. During saints days, which echoed the rites dedicated to Dionysus, large groups of women danced in churches. Similar to earlier pieces associated with battles, sword dances were performed in Germany, Scotland, and elsewhere in Europe. Similar to the sword dance is the Morris dance, which was performed at secular festivals from Scotland to Spain.

The Economy of France between 1980 and 2012

Introduction France is one of the largest and most advanced economies in the world. The country achieved its success through diversification of its economy and prudent management of the public sector finances.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Economy of France between 1980 and 2012 specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Unlike other developed countries, agriculture contributes significantly to economic development in France. The output from the agricultural sector comes from livestock and cash crops. The leading industries in the country include chemicals, automobiles, electronics, machinery, and textiles. The main minerals produced in the country include iron, bauxite, and coal. Nearly 75% of the country’s electricity is generated though nuclear energy. The government has since reduced its participation in the economy by privatizing most of its firms. This paper focuses on the economy of France by analyzing five of its key macroeconomic variables. Additionally, policy recommendations will be suggested to help the country to revitalize its economy. The analysis will focus on the period between 1980 and 2012. Background France is among the leading producers of automobiles, aircrafts, cosmetics, and luxury goods. It also has highly advanced insurance, telecoms, power generation, and tourism industries. The country’s labor force has the largest number of graduates, especially, in science disciples per one thousand workers in the Euro-zone. Following the end of the Second World War, the country experienced a rapid economic growth due to its massive investment in agriculture. During this period, nearly 40% of the population was employed in the agricultural sector. The country’s GDP expanded at an average rate of 4.1% between 1945 and 1975. Rapid economic growth was maintained through several four-year development plans.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More These plans had economic development targets that were set by the government, but were mainly achieved by the private sector. From 1945 to 1986, the government focused on implementing policies of nationalization, as well as, intensive intervention in the economy. From 1981, Mitterrand’s regime focused on nationalizing major firms in key industries such as insurance, banking, and pharmaceuticals. Following the failure of the nationalization strategy, the country embarked on large-scale privatization of its firms in the 1990s. Nonetheless, the government still holds a large proportion of shares in the countries major companies such as France Telecom and Renault. In the 1990s, the country’s economy maintained moderate growth through investments in modern technologies such as the internet and the expansion of infrastructure. The formation of the European Union and the Euro-zone contributed to the country’s economic growth by providing a ready market for its exports. However, the economic crisis in Europe and the global economic downturn, which began in 2007, led to severe reduction in the country’s growth rate. In 2009, the country’s â€Å"real GDP contracted by 2.6%, whereas unemployment rate increased from 7.4% to 10%†. Additionally, the country’s budget deficit as a percentage of GDP increased from 3.4% in 2008 to 7.5% in 2009. Public debt also increased from 68% to 89% of the GDP in the same period.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Economy of France between 1980 and 2012 specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Despite the efforts made by the government in the last five years, the country has not been able to achieve a growth rate above 2% or to reduce its unemployment rate below 10% (IMF, 2013). Overview of the Main Macroeconomic Variables France’s real in terest rate, unemployment rate, GDP, current account balance, and inflation rate have greatly evolved in the last thirty years. Unemployment rate refers to the â€Å"percentage of the total labor force that is unemployed, but willing to work and actively seeking employment†. Figure 1 illustrates the fluctuation of unemployment in France in the last thirty years. According to figure 1, the country’s unemployment rate rose steadily from 8.07% in 1982 to 10.5% in 1988. This increase is mainly attributed to the socialist policies that were implemented by the government, which resulted into poor performance of state-owned firms. This led to a significant loss of jobs. On average, the country’s unemployment rate in the 1980s was 9.56%. Following the implementation of an expansionary fiscal policy that led to a 4.67% GDP growth in 1988, the unemployment rate reduced to 8.98% in 1990 (IMF, 2013). However, this recovery was short lived since the unemployment rate rose to 11.68% in 1994. From 1994 to 1999, the country’s average unemployment rate was 11.21%. The country maintained a less than 10% unemployment rate from 2000 to 2008. However, the 2008/2009 global economic downturn led to an increase in unemployment rate above 10%. Figure 2 indicates that the country’s inflation rate has been falling from 1982 to 2012. The inflation rate decreased from 11.98% in 1982 to 0.67% in 1998 (IMF, 2013). One of the factors that accounted for the reduction in inflation was the oil glut of the 1980s.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The increase in oil supply in early 1980s led to a reduction in the price of crude oil. Consequently, the cost of production reduced, which in turn led to low inflation. However, inflation rose to 1.92% in 2012 mainly due to the Euro-zone crisis. Despite the low inflation rate, France’s aggregate consumption and demand did not rise substantially in order to boost rapid economic growth. In this regard, the steady decline in inflation in the last decade reflects the poor growth in the country’s GDP. This is because inflation often increases when the economy is experiencing rapid economic growth, especially, when the government implements an expansionary fiscal policy. Figure 1: Unemployment Rate Verses GDP growth The country’s real interest rate has also been falling steadily in the last twenty years as shown in figure 3. Concisely, the interest rate was reduced from 2.4% in 1993 to 0.12% in 2012 (World Bank, 2013). A significant reduction in interest rate was on e of the strategies of the French government to spur economic growth by reducing the cost of financial capital. In particular, reducing the real interest rate was meant to increase the availability of affordable credit to businesses and individuals. Consequently, private economic agents were expected to increase their expenditure, thereby promoting GDP growth. Figure 2: Inflation Rate Verses GDP Growth Figure 3: Real Interest Rate Verses GDP Growth Figure 4 indicates that France’s current account balance has been very volatile in the last thirty years. The country had a deficit between 1982 and 1990. However, it recovered steadily after 1992, thereby reaching a surplus of 3.15% of GDP by 1999 (IMF, 2013). From 2000, the current account has been declining steadily, thereby reaching a deficit of -1.75% of GDP in 2012. This deficit reflects the inability of France’s products to maintain their competitiveness in the international market. In particular, high cost of produ ction increased the prices of France’s exports. The resulting reduction in the country’s exports partly contributed to the increase in its current account deficit. Since 1982, the country’s highest GDP growth was 4.67% in 1988, whereas the lowest growth was -3.15 in 2009. Table 1in the appendix presents the data used to generate figure 1 to 4. Figure 4: Current Account Balance Verses GDP Growth Macroeconomic Analysis France experienced a high unemployment rate (above 10%) between 1985 and 1988; 1993 and 1999; and 2011 and 2012. The high unemployment rate during these periods is mainly attributed to the conditions in the country’s labor market. France has one of the highest income taxes in the world. The country’s personal income tax rate is more than 40%. France’s personal income tax rate is higher than the rate in most developed countries, especially, members of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). For instance , the United States of America charges 5%, whereas the United Kingdom charges 11%. The high personal income tax rate has contributed significantly to the reduction of the competitiveness of French companies. This is because French employees have to demand for high wages in order to compensate for the high taxes that they pay to the government. This increases the operating costs of most firms, especially, in labor-intensive industries. In order to maintain their competiveness, most French firms in the manufacturing sector relocated their production plants to countries such as China and India, which have cheap labor. This strategy has led to exportation of jobs as companies reduce their workers in order to lower operating costs. For instance, Peugeot, one of the leading automobiles manufacturers in the country, dismissed 8,000 workers in 2012 in order to reduce its labor costs. From 2000, the government focused on implementing several reforms in order to boost employment in the privat e sector. The reforms included a reduction of personal income taxes for employees earning the minimum wage, as well as, allowing tax breaks for firms that employ young people or trainees. These reforms partly contributed to the slight reduction of unemployment between 2000 and 2003. Nonetheless, these reforms did not achieve much since unemployment rate began to increase from 2004. This is because French firms still found it profitable to produce in countries with cheap labor. Consequently, they focused on creating jobs in overseas markets rather than in their domestic market. Protection of employee rights is another problem that leads to high unemployment rate in France. The labor unions in France have a lot of influence in the labor market. They always participated in the negotiation of salaries and working conditions in most industries. Consequently, French workers benefit from job security and guaranteed salary levels. Providing these benefits has been a great challenge to small businesses due to their limited financial resources. Consequently, they are reluctant to create new jobs for fear of the penalties associated with dismissing workers or paying low wages. Low qualification is the major cause of unemployment among the youth. Due to the high competition in the job market, most employers prefer to hire experienced workers rather than fresh graduates from collages. Fresh graduates (youth) are expensive to employers since they have to be trained before they adapt to the work environment. Finally, the high employment rate in 2012 is attributed to dismal economic growth that began in 2007. Figure 1 shows that unemployment has been increasing as GDP growth reduces from 2007. The low economic growth has led to reduced profits, thereby limiting the ability of firms to create new jobs or to sustain existing ones. According to figure 2, France’s inflation rate was highest in 1982. This is partly attributed to the 1978-1979 oil shock that led to a sharp i ncrease in prices of goods. The increase in oil prices in late 1970s led to an increase in the cost of production, thereby causing a general rise in the prices of goods. As the economy recovered from the oil shock, inflation began to reduce, reaching a low of 2.5% in 1986. Following the expansion of GDP by 4.67% in 1988, the inflation rate rose to 3.5% in 1989 (IMF, 2013). An increase in economic growth is normally accompanied by increased expenditure in the private and the public sector, thereby increasing inflationary pressure. Since 1990, France has maintained an inflation rate below 3%. This low rate of inflation is mainly attributed to slow economic growth and slack in the economy. According to figure 2, inflation tends to be falling when GDP growth is reducing. The logic behind this trend is that slow economic growth lead to low GDP per capita. The resulting reduction in purchasing power leads to a fall in the demand for goods and services. Consequently, firms reduce their pri ces in order to remain competitive. This reduction in prices leads to low inflation rate. In 2009, the GDP contracted by -3.1%, thereby causing a near deflation situation (0.09% inflation rate). The reduction in real interest rate in the last three decades was caused by intense regulation of the banking sector. Concisely, banking-sector regulations did not permit the increase of nominal interest rates to compensate for the loss of currency value due to inflation. Consequently, real interest rates reduced as inflation increased. Even though the government liberalized the banking sector in late 1990s, the real interest rates did not rise. This is because France’s central bank lowered its lending rate in order to spur economic growth. Current account balance refers to a country’s net import of goods and services, as well as, net transfer payment and earnings from sources such as rent. In the last three decades, France’s current account has been in deficit except fo r the period between 1992 and 2004. The deficit that occurred before 1992 was due to the high labor costs that led to outsourcing by most French companies. Concisely, most companies relocated their production plants to overseas economies with cheap labor. Additionally, some companies outsourced their back office operations to foreign countries. This led to increased imports, thereby causing the current account deficit. The deficit that occurred after 2004 is mainly attributed to France’s participation in the Euro-zone. In particular, the deficit has been caused by the monetary union in the Euro-zone. The use of a common currency means that France’s exchange rate in the Euro-zone is fixed. Consequently, its currency cannot depreciate relative to other Euro-zone countries such as Germany in order to boost exports and reduce imports. Figure 4 indicates that France’s current account has been worsening when its GDP is falling and vice versa. This implies that the red uction in productivity as indicated by a reduction in GDP limits the country’s ability to export. Arising GDP, on the other hand, implies increased productivity that increase the country’s ability to export, thereby improving the current account balance. According to figure 5, France has been able to achieve a rapid growth in its per capita GDP since 1800. Consequently, it has been able to catch-up with other developed countries such Spain and Sweden (Gap-Minder, 2013). Nonetheless, figure 1to 4 shows that the country has not been able to maintain a rapid growth of its GDP in the last three decades. From 1982 to 2008, France’s average GDP growth was approximately 2%. Other advanced economies such as the USA grew by 3% over the same period. After 2008, France has not been able to achieve any growth above 1.6% (IMF, 2013). The factors that account for the poor performance include the following. To begin with, the economic model that spurred rapid growth after the Second World War lost its effectiveness from the 1970s to 1990s. This is because the country has been experiencing a sharp decline in returns on capital, labor productivity gains, and investments since 1970s. Low productivity among the working class has also contributed to the country’s poor economic growth. The number of hours dedicated to work per full-time employee has reduced considerable in the last three decades. France’s investment efficiency has reduced substantially in the last four decades. Investment efficiency refers to the â€Å"variation in GDP in relation to net fixed capital formation†. The combined effect of low productivity gains and reduced investment efficiency led to a reduction in firm profits, thereby limiting growth. Consequently, firms focused on cost reduction and maintaining profitability rather than expanding their markets. The reduction in profits limited the firms’ ability to make new investments, thereby slowing job creation . The resulting increase in unemployment rate led to a reduction of wages. Consequently, aggregate demand fell, thereby discouraging economic growth in the 1980s. In the 1990s, the government introduced labor market reforms such as fixed-term contracts. These reforms enabled most firms to return to profitability. However, they did not succeed in enhancing domestic demand in order to promote economic growth. Even though investment rebound in late 1990s, France did not define a new economic model to sustain a rapid growth. Due to unfavorable labor market conditions and low profits, most French companies embarked on foreign direct investments in the 1990s. This strategy did not only lead to capital flight from the country, but also worsened its current account deficit and unemployment rate. Figure 5: Gap-Minder France is yet to recover from the shocks of the Euro-zone crisis and the 2008/2009 economic downturn, which have reduced its economic growth in the last five years. Figure 6 sh ows the trend in the growth of France’s GDP in the last five years. According to the figure, France’s GDP began to decline just before the global financial crisis in mid 2007. The country’s aggregate demand declined during the crisis, thereby reducing its GDP growth from 2.289% in 2007 to -0.083 in 2008. The GDP growth further reduced to -3.146% in 2009. This reduction is attributed to the fact that by 2009, the financial crisis had negatively affected consumption in most European countries, which are the main export destinations for France’s products. Consequently, France experienced economic decline due to a reduction in its exports. The country’s business cycle shifted from recession to recovery phase in 2010. Additionally, its GDP growth remained stable at a rate of approximately 1.6% between 2010 and 2011. However, this gain was lost as the effect of the Euro-zone crisis spread across Europe. In particular, the Euro-zone crisis led to low inve stor confidence, capital flight, low demand and consumption in the region. These shocks led to a decline in France’s economic growth from 1.693% in 2011 to 0.122% in 2012. Figure 6: France’s Economic Growth in the Last Five Years Policy Recommendations The following suggestions can help France to return to rapid economic growth. To begin with, unemployment can be reduced through labor market reforms. These include wage compression that involves lowering the minimum wage rate and implementing a negative income tax. A lower minimum wage will encourage local firms to create new jobs, whereas a negative income tax will compensate employees for the income lost through the reduction of the minimum wage. The payroll tax should also be reduced in order to encourage local firms to create jobs by investing in France rather than relocating to other countries. The current account deficit can be corrected by increasing net exports outside the Euro-zone. This is because the depreci ation of the Euro against other currencies will make France’s exports more competitive. The current account will improve as exports increase and imports reduce. The government can avoid deflation by loosening its monetary policy. The resulting increase in money supply will encourage investment and consumption, thereby preventing deflation. However, loosening monetary policy should be moderate in order to avoid high inflation. Finally, France should improve its economic growth by reforming its tax system. Concisely, it should raise taxes for the high-income earners and lower taxes for the low-income earners. This will ensure that the government has adequate tax revenue without discouraging expenditure among the low-income earners. Reducing the budget deficit to 3% of the GDP will negate the need for austerity measures in future, thereby encouraging growth through public and private expenditure. Conclusion The aim of this paper was to analyze the French economy. In particular, it focused on the evolution of the economy’s GDP, unemployment rate, inflation rate, current account balance, and real interest rate in the last three decades. Results show that GDP growth has remained dismal in the last thirty years. The factors that account for the slow growth include high labor costs, lack of an effective growth model, and low investment efficiency. The current account has been deteriorating. Similarly, high unemployment has been a persistent problem. Nonetheless, the real interest rate and inflation have been declining. In light of these revelations, the government should take immediate measures to improve the economy. Appendix Table 1: Data for figure 1 to 4 yeas GDP Inflation Unemployment CA Bal Interest rate 1982 2.418 11.978 8.069 -2.099 1983 1.227 9.46 8.421 -0.853 1984 1.499 7.674 9.771 -0.145 1985 1.614 5.831 10.23 -0.064 1986 2.252 2.539 10.363 0.31 1987 2.387 3.289 10.5 -0.484 1988 4.671 2.701 10.006 -0.465 1989 4.184 3. 498 9.396 -0.46 1990 2.625 3.38 8.975 -0.791 1991 1.034 3.217 9.467 -0.495 1992 1.478 2.366 9.85 0.279 1993 -0.665 2.106 11.117 0.708 7.02 1994 2.248 1.661 11.683 0.596 6.69 1995 2.044 1.778 11.15 0.466 6.80 1996 1.067 2.084 11.583 1.231 5.23 1997 2.189 1.283 11.542 2.657 5.38 1998 3.377 0.667 11.067 2.621 5.46 1999 3.287 0.533 10.458 3.147 6.17 2000 3.686 1.716 9.083 1.452 5.05 2001 1.834 1.606 8.392 1.756 4.86 2002 0.928 1.885 8.908 1.247 4.29 2003 0.901 2.141 8.892 0.723 4.51 2004 2.54 2.143 9.258 0.541 4.84 2005 1.826 1.751 9.283 -0.485 4.50 2006 2.468 1.669 9.242 -0.576 4.55 2007 2.289 1.49 8.375 -1.003 3.70 2008 -0.083 2.817 7.817 -1.744 4.6 2009 -3.146 0.099 9.5 -1.333 4.70 2010 1.664 1.493 9.729 -1.558 3.12 2011 1.693 2.141 9.633 -1.95 3.32 2012 0.122 1.924 10.138 -1.734 2.54 References Boyes, W., Melvin, M. (2010). Macroeconomics. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Couleaud, A., Delamarre, F. (2010). France’s national ec onomic wealth declined in 2009 for the second year in a row. Paris, France: Banque de France. Gap-Minder. (2013). The wealth of nations. Web. IMF. (2013). Economic data. Web. Kabundi, A., Simone, F. (2011). France in the global economy: A stractural approximation dynamic factor model anlysis. Empirical Economics, 41(2), 311-342. Miotti, L., Sachwald, F. (2004). Growth in France from 1950-2030: The innovation challange. Paris, France: IFRI. World Bank. (2013). World development indicators. Web. This essay on The Economy of France between 1980 and 2012 was written and submitted by user Carolina Glover to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.